EPA's performance standards strengthen the emissions standards for new wood stoves, while establishing federal air standards for other new wood heaters, including outdoor and indoor wood-fired boilers (also known as hydronic heaters). The final standards also set particulate matter (PM) emission limits for newly manufactured adjustable-rate ...Opened oil-based paint can last for up to 15 years if sealed correctly. Latex paint can last up to 10 years. To store paint, the EPA recommends that users keep it in their original...Under EPA’s modeling of one scenario, automakers might seek to comply with the 2032 requirements by boosting battery-electric vehicles to 56% of total US sales, …Dec 5, 2023 · Research on Health Effects from Air Pollution. Decades of research have shown that air pollutants such as ozone and particulate matter (PM) increase the amount and seriousness of lung and heart disease and other health problems. More investigation is needed to further understand the role poor air quality plays in causing detrimental effects to ... EPA has classified chromium (VI) as a Group A, known human carcinogen by the inhalation route of exposure. (7) EPA used a mathematical model, based on data from an occupational study of chromate production workers, to estimate the probability of a person developing cancer from continuously breathing air containing a specified concentration of ...The posting of a test method on the Other Test Methods (OTM) portion of the Air Emission Measurement Center (EMC) website is neither an endorsement by EPA regarding the validity of the test ... trained and have experience with the following additional EPA test methods: Method 1; Method 2; Method 3; Method 4. …A statement from National Grid, US WALTHAM, Mass. , June 30, 2022 /PRNewswire/ -- The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has a fundamental role... A statement from National Grid...Mar 12, 2024 · Other Common Air Pollutants. Ground-level Ozone. Particulate Matter (PM) Carbon Monoxide (CO) Sulfur Dioxide (SO2) Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2) See information on all criteria air pollutants. Mar 18, 2024 · Air Quality Trends. Carbon Monoxide. Lead. Ozone. Contact Us to ask a question, provide feedback, or report a problem. Last updated on March 18, 2024. EPA sets national air quality standards for six common air pollutants. Each year EPA tracks the levels of these air pollutants in the air. EPA posts the results of our analyses to this web site. Volatile organic compounds, or VOCs are organic chemical compounds whose composition makes it possible for them to evaporate under normal indoor atmospheric conditions of temperature and pressure 3. This is the general definition of VOCs that is used in the scientific literature, and is consistent with the definition used for indoor air quality.Use of AirNow Data. This plot provides ozone, PM 2.5, and PM 10 data from AirNow for recent days that are not available from AQS. AQS data, as it becomes available, replaces any AirNow data. The AirNow data are not fully verified and validated through the quality assurance procedures monitoring organizations …Air toxics, also known as hazardous air pollutants (HAPs), are 188 pollutants that EPA has identified as being known or suspected to cause cancers and other adverse health effects, including damage to the immune system, neurological problems, respiratory effects, and birth defects. Most air toxics are emitted into …Other Common Air Pollutants. Ground-level Ozone. Particulate Matter (PM) Carbon Monoxide (CO) Sulfur Dioxide (SO2) Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2) See information on all criteria air pollutants.Interactive Map of Air Quality. Monitors. NowCast AQI. Contours. NowCast AQI. Show green contours. Ozone and PM. (PM2.5 and PM10) Ozone.Oct 31, 2023 ... Using a portable air cleaner and/or upgrading the air filter in your furnace or central heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning (HVAC) system ...Protecting air, water and land in the Beehive State. EPA's work in Utah is managed from our office in Denver, Colorado. Learn more about EPA Region 8.Sep 5, 2023 ... EPA regulates emissions of air pollution from mobile and stationary sources under the Clean Air Act (CAA). For more on EPA's enforcement process ...Research on Health Effects from Air Pollution. Decades of research have shown that air pollutants such as ozone and particulate matter (PM) increase the amount and seriousness of lung and heart disease and other health problems. More investigation is needed to further understand the role poor air quality plays in causing detrimental effects …Dec 4, 2023 · December 2, 2023 -- EPA has issued a final rule that will sharply reduce emissions of methane and other harmful air pollution from oil and natural gas operations — including, for the first time, from existing sources nationwide. The final action includes New Source Performance Standards to reduce methane and smog-forming volatile organic ... The posting of a test method on the Other Test Methods (OTM) portion of the Air Emission Measurement Center (EMC) website is neither an endorsement by EPA regarding the validity of the test ... trained and have experience with the following additional EPA test methods: Method 1; Method 2; Method 3; Method 4. …Last week the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency pulled this tool out of the clean air toolbox. The EPA made history by adopting new multi-pollutant rules for light …How is the AQI calculated? Refer to the AQI Technical Assistance Document for equations on how to calculate the AQI from pollutant concentration. Return to Frequent Questions about AirData.The EPA made history by adopting new multi-pollutant rules for light-duty and smaller medium-duty vehicles limiting tailpipe pollution that poisons the air we breathe and accelerates climate ...iPhone. EPA's AirNow mobile app provides a simple interface for quickly checking current and forecast air quality information for planning daily activities and protecting your health. The app automatically displays the current AQI (Air Quality Index) for your local area or any area you wish to check, and allows you to store multiple areas for ...If you work in the HVAC industry or any other field that involves handling refrigerants, having an EPA certification is essential. This certification proves that you have the knowl...Read EPA’s “Guide to air cleaners in the home” for more information on HVAC filters and placing and operating a portable air cleaner. Use CDC's Interactive …To join the ambient air monitoring listserv send a email to: [email protected]. Contact Us to ask a question, provide feedback, or report a problem. Last updated on March 6, 2024. This site contains information on ambient air quality monitoring programs, monitoring methods, quality assurance and control …June 30, 2023 – EPA and DOE Announce Partnership to Provide More than $1 Billion to Reduce Methane Emissions. November 4, 2022 – EPA published a Request for Information (RFI) seeking public comment on a set of non-regulatory dockets to collect responses to a range of questions including those related to the Methane Emissions …42 U.S.C. §7401 et seq. (1970) The Clean Air Act (CAA) is the comprehensive federal law that regulates air emissions from stationary and mobile sources. Among other things, this law authorizes EPA to establish National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) to protect public health and public welfare and to regulate emissions …Outdoor air pollution challenges facing the United States today include: Meeting health-based standards for common air pollutants. Limiting climate change. Reducing risks from toxic air pollutants. Protecting the stratospheric ozone layer against degradation. Indoor air pollution, which arises from a variety of causes, also can cause …WASHINGTON (March 11, 2022) – Following clear Clean Air Act requirements and meeting a court deadline, EPA is proposing a federal plan that would cut pollution from power plants and industrial sources that significantly contribute to unhealthy levels of ground-level ozone, or smog, for millions of Americans who live …Sep 6, 2023 ... The Clean Air Act, or CAA, is the comprehensive federal law that regulates air emissions from stationary and mobile sources, using standards ...Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are emitted as gases from certain solids or liquids. VOCs include a variety of chemicals, some of which may have short- and long-term adverse health effects. Concentrations of many VOCs are consistently higher indoors (up to ten times higher) than outdoors. VOCs are …On December 20, 2022, EPA adopted a final rule, “Control of Air Pollution from New Motor Vehicles: Heavy-Duty Engine and Vehicle Standards,” that sets stronger emissions standards to further reduce air pollution, including pollutants that create ozone and particulate matter, from heavy-duty vehicles and engines starting in model year 2027.Jan 23, 2024 · Last updated on January 23, 2024. This site provides air quality data collected at outdoor monitors across the United States, Puerto Rico, and the U. S. Virgin Islands. Users can download, output, view or visualize the data. The EPA rule applies to model years 2027 to 2032 and will significantly reduce emissions of planet-warming greenhouse gases, as well as other air pollution such as …Carbon Monoxide (CO) Pollution in Outdoor Air. slide 1 of 1. CO is a colorless, odorless gas that can be harmful when inhaled in large amounts.In the market for a new Daikin air conditioning unit to keep your home cool and comfortable? Here’s what to expect from Daikin’s air conditioning costs. Expert Advice On Improving ...Dec 5, 2023 · Research on Health Effects from Air Pollution. Decades of research have shown that air pollutants such as ozone and particulate matter (PM) increase the amount and seriousness of lung and heart disease and other health problems. More investigation is needed to further understand the role poor air quality plays in causing detrimental effects to ... EPA Air Dispersion Modelling Guidance Note (AG4) 2020. Summary: This guidance note seeks to present general principles and suitable methods that may be used to assess and report on the impact of air emissions from EPA licensed industrial installations. The original version of this guidance note was published by the EPA …Oct 10, 2023 ... The ECHO Clean Air Tracking Tool (ECATT) is a US EPA interface and repository for Clean Air Act data that can be used to evaluate emissions ...Welcome! For more than 50 years, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has maintained its commitment to protecting public health by reducing pollutant emissions and improving air quality. This annual …On July 25, 2023, EPA announced proposed updates to the AERR to improve EPA's collection of certain emissions data critical for performing air quality and risk analyses, among other regulatory and non-regulatory activities. This proposed action would allow for EPA to annually collect (starting in 2027), hazardous air pollutant (HAP) emissions ...EPA universal certification allows the recipient to work on virtually all appliances that contain refrigerants, small and large, high-pressure and low-pressure. The universal certi...Mar 7, 2024 · Overview. EPA is announcing the availability of approximately $81 million in non-competitive, direct award funding from the Inflation Reduction Act of 2022 (IRA) for eligible state, local, Tribal and territorial air agencies to establish new ambient air monitoring sites, and maintain, operate, or upgrade existing ambient air monitoring networks. The EPA on Monday formally prohibited the import and use of chrysotile asbestos, the last type of asbestos that U.S. industries use. The ban comes 33 years …The mission of EPA is to protect human health and the environment. EPA works to ensure that: Americans have clean air, land and water; National efforts to reduce environmental risks are based on the best available scientific information; Federal laws protecting human health and the environment are administered and enforced fairly, …The EPA made history by adopting new multi-pollutant rules for light-duty and smaller medium-duty vehicles limiting tailpipe pollution that poisons the air we breathe and accelerates climate ...off-site compliance monitoring: data collection, review, reporting, program coordination, oversight, and support. inspector training, credentialing and support. EPA provides compliance incentives and auditing to encourage facilities to find and disclose violations to the Agency. Violations may also be discovered from tips/complaints …EPA's America's Children and the Environment brings together information from a variety of sources to provide data and trends and related information on the environment and children's health. Children are often more vulnerable to pollutants than adults due to differences in behavior and biology, that can lead to greater exposure …Learn about the six common air pollutants that affect human health and the environment, also known as criteria air pollutants. Find out how EPA sets and reviews the standards, monitors the air quality, and implements the programs to reduce these pollutants.Small businesses, led by NFIB, continue legal battle against EPA's WOTUS rule, citing increased costs and regulatory burdens. Small businesses, led by the National Federation of In...In 2021, EPA released its PFAS Strategic Roadmap, which lays out EPA’s whole-of-agency approach to addressing PFAS. Science plays a vital role in EPA’s integrated approach to PFAS. ... Robust, accurate methods for detecting and measuring PFAS in air, land, and water are essential for understanding which PFAS are in the …The EPA is finalizing a rule for air pollutant emissions standards for passenger cars, light trucks, and the largest pickups and vans. Learn more about clean …On July 25, 2023, EPA announced proposed updates to the AERR to improve EPA's collection of certain emissions data critical for performing air quality and risk analyses, among other regulatory and non-regulatory activities. This proposed action would allow for EPA to annually collect (starting in 2027), hazardous air pollutant (HAP) emissions ...Air quality monitors measure concentrations of SO 2 throughout the country. EPA, state, tribal and local agencies use that data to ensure that SO 2 in the air is at levels that protect public health and the environment. Nationally, average SO 2 concentrations have decreased substantially over the years. The charts below show national and …Small-scale gold refining is a major cause of air pollution from mercury. EPA helped design a low-cost mercury capture system that is simple to build and install, uses locally available materials, and reduces mercury emissions by at least 80%. Learn how EPA's mercury capture system is helping reduce …Mar 18, 2024 · When used properly, air cleaners and HVAC filters can help reduce airborne contaminants including viruses in a building or small space. By itself, air cleaning or filtration is not enough to protect people from COVID-19. When used along with other best practices recommended by CDC and other public health agencies, including social distancing ... In 2021, EPA released its PFAS Strategic Roadmap, which lays out EPA’s whole-of-agency approach to addressing PFAS. Science plays a vital role in EPA’s integrated approach to PFAS. ... Robust, accurate methods for detecting and measuring PFAS in air, land, and water are essential for understanding which PFAS are in the …The Clean Air Act requires EPA to set National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) for six principal pollutants, called "criteria pollutants," that are common in outdoor air, considered harmful to public health and the environment, and that come from numerous and diverse sources.Aug 22, 2023 · The AirData Air Quality Monitors app is a mapping application available on the web and on mobile devices that displays monitor locations and monitor-specific information. It also allows the querying and downloading of data daily and annual summary data. Monitors for all criteria pollutants (CO, Pb, NO2, Ozone, PM10, PM2.5, and SO2) IMPROVE ... Other Common Air Pollutants. Ground-level Ozone Pollution. Particulate Matter (PM) Carbon Monox ide (CO) Lead (Pb) Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2) See information on all criteria pollutants .The value of Clean Air Act health benefits far exceeds the costs of reducing pollution. EPA’s peer-reviewed 2011 study found that clean air programs established by the 1990 CAA amendments are expected to yield direct benefits to the American people which vastly exceed compliance costs. The study's central benefits estimate of $2 trillion in ...Air Sampling. In response to the East Palestine train derailment, EPA is collecting outdoor air samples for potential contaminants of concern including volatile organic compounds (VOCs) such as vinyl chloride, n-butyl acrylate, and 2-ethylhexyl acrylate. Air sampling involves collection of air for laboratory analysis.Jul 5, 2023 · Other sources are waste incinerators, utilities, and lead-acid battery manufacturers. The highest air concentrations of lead are usually found near lead smelters. As a result of EPA's regulatory efforts including the removal of lead from motor vehicle gasoline, levels of lead in the air decreased by 98 percent between 1980 and 2014. Health Effects. Formaldehyde, a colorless, pungent-smelling gas, can cause watery eyes, burning sensations in the eyes and throat, nausea, and difficulty in breathing in some humans exposed at elevated levels (above 0.1 parts per million). High concentrations may trigger attacks in people with asthma. There is evidence that some people can ...Mar 14, 2024 · Region 6 Office. EPA hotlines. Louisiana Department of Environmental Quality. To report a spill, call the National Response Center at. 1-800-424-8802. TRENDS THROUGH 2020. Welcome! For more than 50 years, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has maintained ...Biden-Harris Administration Announces More Than $1.5 Million for Four Community Air Pollution Monitoring Projects in Arizona. This investment, funded through President Biden’s Climate and Economic Plans, is the largest in EPA history for community air monitoring.Jun 8, 2016 ... EPA calls this set of principal air pollutants, criteria pollutants. The criteria pollutants are carbon monoxide (CO), lead (Pb), nitrogen ...Last updated on March 18, 2024. EPA recommends precautions to reduce the potential airborne transmission of the virus, such as ventilation and air filtration as a part of a …Dec 5, 2023 · Research on Health Effects from Air Pollution. Decades of research have shown that air pollutants such as ozone and particulate matter (PM) increase the amount and seriousness of lung and heart disease and other health problems. More investigation is needed to further understand the role poor air quality plays in causing detrimental effects to ... Carbon Monoxide (CO) Pollution in Outdoor Air. slide 1 of 1. CO is a colorless, odorless gas that can be harmful when inhaled in large amounts.Research on Health Effects from Air Pollution. Decades of research have shown that air pollutants such as ozone and particulate matter (PM) increase the amount and seriousness of lung and heart disease and other health problems. More investigation is needed to further understand the role poor air quality plays in causing detrimental effects …Proposal to Reduce Ethylene Oxide Emissions from Commercial Sterilization Facilities. On April 11, 2023, EPA proposed new requirements for 86 commercial sterilizers across the country. These requirements, if implemented, will reduce the amount of EtO that comes out of commercial sterilizers by 80 percent and will reduce risk in nearby …Interactive Map of Air Quality. Monitors. NowCast AQI. Contours. NowCast AQI. Show green contours. Ozone and PM. (PM2.5 and PM10) Ozone.Outdoor air pollution challenges facing the United States today include: Meeting health-based standards for common air pollutants. Limiting climate change. Reducing risks from toxic air pollutants. Protecting the stratospheric ozone layer against degradation. Indoor air pollution, which arises from a variety of causes, also can cause …Nov 15, 2023 · Compliance Assurance Monitoring. The EPA promulgated regulations for Compliance Assurance Monitoring (CAM) in 1997; the regulations are codified in 40 CFR part 64. The CAM rule applies to major sources required to have a title V permit; it applies to major emission units at the source that rely on add-on pollution control devices to achieve ... In 2022 air monitoring results from EPA stations across Ireland show that fine particulate matter (PM 2.5 ), mainly from burning solid fuel in our homes, and nitrogen dioxide (NO 2) mainly from road traffic, remain the main threats to good air quality. High levels of these pollutants are often associated with cold, still weather from late ...days until April 1, 2024. e-GGRT is open for RY2023 data reporting. The GHGRP requires reporting of greenhouse gas (GHG) data and other relevant information from large GHG emission sources, fuel and industrial gas suppliers, and CO 2 injection sites in the United States. Approximately 8,000 facilities are …Mar 6, 2024 · Progress Cleaning the Air: Actions to implement the Clean Air Act have achieved dramatic reductions in air pollution, preventing hundreds of thousands of cases of serious health effects each year. Accomplishments Under the Clean Air Act. Since 1990 there has been approximately a 50% dec line emissions of key air pollutants. Oct 31, 2023 · Central furnace or HVAC filters are designed to filter air throughout a home. Portable air cleaners and HVAC filters can reduce indoor air pollution; however, they cannot remove all pollutants from the air. The following publications provide information on portable air cleaners and on HVAC and furnace filters commonly used in homes. The 13th Modeling Conference was conducted on November 14th and 15th, 2023 in the EPA Nantahala Auditorium, Room C111, of the EPA RTP Campus at 109 T. W. Alexander Drive, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina. The conference was formally conducted and chaired by an EPA official. The …PM2.5 Data Omitted from Air Trends Assessment. Using a nationwide network of monitoring sites, EPA has developed ambient air quality trends for particle pollution, also called Particulate Matter (PM). PM 2.5 describes fine inhalable particles, with diameters that are generally 2.5 micrometers and smaller. Under the Clean Air Act, EPA …The European Union on Friday voted to ban the use of a chemical that the Obama administration put on a path to banning but that continues to be av... ChrisBoswell / Getty ImagesThe...This page includes a summary of EPA proposed new multi-pollutant emission standards for light-duty and medium-duty vehicles for Model Years 2027 and later. ... Draft Regulatory Impact Analysis (pdf) (12.8 MB, April 2023, EPA-420-D-23-003) Illustrative Air Quality Analysis for the Light and Medium Duty Vehicle …Carbon Monoxide (CO) Pollution in Outdoor Air. slide 1 of 1. CO is a colorless, odorless gas that can be harmful when inhaled in large amounts.EPA has been working to ensure that American families, communities, businesses, hospitals, and others are aware of and have access to effective surface disinfectant products to use against SARS-CoV-2, the novel coronavirus that causes COVID-19. As part of the Federal Government’s efforts to minimize risks to its …U.S. Environmental Protection Agency | US EPABiden-Harris Administration Announces More Than $1.5 Million for Four Community Air Pollution Monitoring Projects in Arizona. This investment, funded through President Biden’s Climate and Economic Plans, is the largest in EPA history for community air monitoring.For more than 50 years, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has maintained its commitment to protecting public health by reducing pollutant emissions ...
In addition, from 1990 to 2017 emissions of air toxics declined by 74 percent, largely driven by federal and state implementation of stationary and mobile source regulations. In recent years, EPA has acted to dramatically improve America's air quality by designing and developing national programs that, when fully implemented, will achieve …. State employee credit union nm
The Air Emission Measurement Center (EMC) provides information on test methods for measuring pollutants from smokestacks and other industrial sources. This website compiles the test methods available for emission measurement. Contact EMC staff for technical assistance in the use and …Dec 5, 2023 · Research on Health Effects from Air Pollution. Decades of research have shown that air pollutants such as ozone and particulate matter (PM) increase the amount and seriousness of lung and heart disease and other health problems. More investigation is needed to further understand the role poor air quality plays in causing detrimental effects to ... The Air Quality System (AQS) is a national repository of ambient air pollution data collected by EPA, state, local, and tribal air pollution control agencies. It also contains meteorological data, descriptive information about each monitoring station (including its geographic location and its operator), and data quality assurance/quality ...EPA universal certification allows the recipient to work on virtually all appliances that contain refrigerants, small and large, high-pressure and low-pressure. The universal certi...Health Effects. Formaldehyde, a colorless, pungent-smelling gas, can cause watery eyes, burning sensations in the eyes and throat, nausea, and difficulty in breathing in some humans exposed at elevated levels (above 0.1 parts per million). High concentrations may trigger attacks in people with asthma. There is evidence that some people can ...iPhone. EPA's AirNow mobile app provides a simple interface for quickly checking current and forecast air quality information for planning daily activities and protecting your health. The app automatically displays the current AQI (Air Quality Index) for your local area or any area you wish to check, and allows you to store multiple areas for ...For example, high humidity keeps the air moist and increases the likelihood of mold. Keep indoor humidity between 30 and 50 percent. Use a moisture or humidity gauge, available at most hardware stores, to see if the humidity in your home is at a good level. To increase humidity, use a vaporizer or humidifier.The posting of a test method on the Other Test Methods (OTM) portion of the Air Emission Measurement Center (EMC) website is neither an endorsement by EPA regarding the validity of the test ... trained and have experience with the following additional EPA test methods: Method 1; Method 2; Method 3; Method 4. …days until April 1, 2024. e-GGRT is open for RY2023 data reporting. The GHGRP requires reporting of greenhouse gas (GHG) data and other relevant information from large GHG emission sources, fuel and industrial gas suppliers, and CO 2 injection sites in the United States. Approximately 8,000 facilities are required to report their emissions ...EPA's America's Children and the Environment brings together information from a variety of sources to provide data and trends and related information on the environment and children's health. Children are often more vulnerable to pollutants than adults due to differences in behavior and biology, that can lead to greater exposure …Learn about smog, soot, ozone, and other air pollution, as well as EPA programs to reduce them. Smog, soot, and other air pollution from transportation. Contact Us to ask a question, provide feedback, or report a problem. Last updated on January 3, 2024. Learn how emissions reductions, advancements in fuels and …TRENDS THROUGH 2021. Welcome! For more than 50 years, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has maintained its commitment to protecting public health by …A design value is a statistic that describes the air quality status of a given location relative to the level of the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS). Design values are defined to be consistent with the individual NAAQS as described in 40 CFR Part 50. Design values are typically used to designate and classify nonattainment areas ...Criteria air pollutants are found all over the U.S. They can harm your health and the environment, and cause property damage. The Clean Air Act requires EPA to set National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) for six commonly found air pollutants known as criteria air pollutants. Together with state, tribal and …For 50 years, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has maintained its commitment to protecting public health by improving air quality and reducing air …Outdoor air pollution challenges facing the United States today include: Meeting health-based standards for common air pollutants. Limiting climate change. Reducing risks from toxic air pollutants. Protecting the stratospheric ozone layer against degradation. Indoor air pollution, which arises from a variety of causes, also can cause … EPA will host the National Air Quality Conference (NAQC) as a virtual only event on March 18-21, 2024. Visit the NAQC webpage to learn more about this event. AirNow is your one-stop source for air quality data. 42 U.S.C. §7401 et seq. (1970) The Clean Air Act (CAA) is the comprehensive federal law that regulates air emissions from stationary and mobile sources. Among other things, this law authorizes EPA to establish National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) to protect public health and public welfare and to regulate emissions …Air Pollution Includes Gases and Particles. Air pollution consists of gas and particle contaminants that are present in the atmosphere. Gaseous pollutants include sulfur dioxide (SO 2), oxides of nitrogen (NO x), ozone (O 3), carbon monoxide (CO), volatile organic compounds (VOCs), certain toxic air pollutants and some gaseous forms of ….